. Introduction
Sundaland (Indonesia), with its enormous number of endemic plant species and unusually high biodiversity, is recognized as one of the world’s 36 biodiversity hotspots (Butler, 2023; Noss, 2016). As the main part of the country, Java is also one of the most densely populated regions in the world, with almost half of the population of Indonesia living on this island, with the city of Jakarta serving as the central urban hub (Britannica, 2024). Owing to the growing population of Jakarta and its surroundings, the region was established and commonly referred to as the Jakarta Metropolitan Area (JMA). This area is sometimes called Greater Jakarta or Jabodetabek (Jakarta, Bogor, Depok, Tangerang, and Bekasi). This serves as the focal point for the government, culture, education, and economy in Indonesia. The JMA is home to over 30.6 million residents (BPS, 2020). There are 31 major ethnic groups, including Sundanese, Javanese, Betawinese, Chinese, Bataknese, and Minangnese (BPS, 2010). Each has unique traditions, languages, and customs that make the region a melting pot of diverse cultures, as reflected in various cultural festivals, cuisines, and traditions.
Diversity and species richness in Indonesia are among the highest in the world. Plant species constitute 10% of the world’s flora (CEPF, 2001), with 2,722 species of mosses, 512 species of lichens, 1,611 species of pteridophytes, and 24,632 species of spermatophytes (Retnowati et al., 2019). The diversity of plants used by the community is influenced by the diversity of plants around them, socioeconomic conditions, and cultural practices involving wild plants (Kang et al., 2014). According to Duriyaprapan et al. (2005), Sundaland has approximately 6200 plant species that are useful for various purposes. The use of wild plants within communities varies depending on the ethnic groups engaging in cultural practices and their specific uses, which may include purposes such as food, medicine, construction materials, fiber sources, dyes, ceremonies, and decorations (Rahmawati et al., 2023; Suharti, 2015). One piece of documentation that is representative of recording the use of plants in Indonesia is the relief of 63 plant species on the stone structure of the Borobudur Temple in Java, which was built in the eighth and ninth centuries (Kartawinata, 2010; Metusala et al., 2020).
Ethnobotany research, especially on plants traded in traditional markets, has become important globally because of the recognition of markets as a valuable repository of local knowledge. Traditional markets provide insight into the traditional uses of plants within communities. Examining the dynamics of plant trade in these markets enhances our understanding of cultural practices, indigenous knowledge, and complex relationships between communities and their plant resources (Cunningham, 2001).
Traditional marketplaces trade a variety of products, including industrial, dry, wet, agricultural, and wild plant products (Cruz-Garcia et al., 2015; Franco et al., 2020; Iskandar et al., 2020; Silalahi et al., 2015). Market surveys have been used for ethnobotanical research (Nguyen et al., 2008) as well as for studying wild plants around the world, such as in Croatia (Łuczaj et al., 2013), Greece (Hanlidou et al., 2004), Poland (Kasper-Pakosz et al., 2016), Cyprus (Karousou & Deirmentzoglou, 2020), Tanzania (Hilonga et al., 2018), and Mexico (Bye, 6198), etc. In Southeast Asia, some studies have been conducted to examine the wild plants sold in markets in Thailand, Malaysia, Laos, and Brunei Darussalam (Franco et al., 2020; Łuczaj et al., 2021; Shirai & Rambo, 2014; Sulaini & Sabran, 2018). Ethnobotanical studies in Indonesia have largely focused on medicinal plants (Iskandar et al., 2023; Khusna et al., 2022; Nahdi & Kurniawan, 2019), although several studies have explored wild edible plants in the market (Deanova et al., 2021; Iskandar et al., 2018, 2021; Pawera, 2021; Silalahi et al., 2021). However, despite the economic and cultural significance of wild plants in urban food markets, no study has specifically examined the diversity and trade of wild edible plants in JMA.
This study aimed to fill this gap by documenting wild plants sold in traditional markets in the JMA. Specifically, we investigated: I) which plants are most popular in the market, II) for what purposes people use particular species of wild plants, III) whether particular plants sold in markets are associated with particular ethnic groups, and IV) what are the differences in plant composition between individual markets in the JMA region?
. Materials and methods
. Study area
Administratively, the JMA includes the capital city of Jakarta as the center and several districts or city areas. This region comes from three provinces, namely, the entire Jakarta Province, as well as parts of West Java Province and Banten Province. Our study focuses on the traditional markets in the JMA. Traditional markets are places where farmers, fishermen, and small traders can directly buy and sell agricultural products and other daily necessities. These markets reflect the local culture and natural resource diversity and promote economic and social interactions (BPS, 2018). A purposive sampling approach was used to select markets across ten districts within the JMA. The selection criteria included geographic distribution, market size, and accessibility, ensuring representation of diverse trade settings. Almost every market in our study has a building provided to sellers, but many sellers prefer to set up shops in open places, such as on the roadside around the market building and in the parking space. Thus, the market conditions in the JMA are a mixture of the indoor and outdoor markets (Figure 1).
. Ethnobotanical data collection
We conducted a traditional market survey between June 2023 and April 2024. These markets usually operate from the early morning to late evening (4:00 AM to 10:00 PM). Our visits took place between 7:00 AM and 12:00 PM local time, which are the peak trading hours. Each market was visited on a one–day basis, with several visits (2–3) conducted across different markets. We purposefully approached the stalls based on the availability of wild plants, and then waited for the right moment to ask and explain our intentions to the seller and buyer.
The ethnobotanical information was collected through semi-structured interviews. This type of interview involves a set of pre-prepared questions that cover the name of the plant, part of the plant used, its origin, use, and preparation method. Based on the answers provided by the respondents, these questions may be modified, added, or removed as necessary (Adams, 2015). Semi-structured interviews mimic natural conversation, which is commonly used in ethnobotanical and market research. The open–ended questions in this format encourage respondents to share unexpected, additional information and offer detailed insights, whereas the basic framework questions ensure that important topics are covered (Abbate et al., 2022; Hilonga et al., 2018; Łuczaj et al., 2021; Nanagulyan et al., 2020).
In total, 111 respondents were interviewed. The age of the participants ranged from 23 to 80 years. The sex composition of the respondents was 55% male and 45% female. We collected information, such as the name of the plants, purpose of use, plant parts used, methods of preparation, and origin of these traded plants. Before the interviews, consent was obtained from all the participants, and their identities remained confidential.
. Specimen collection and identification
During our visits, all the wild plants sold in the market were photographed. If possible, fresh or dry samples were collected as voucher specimens. Voucher specimens were deposited at the Herbarium of Jagiellonian University in Kraków, Poland (KRA). Plant identification followed Flora Malesiana (Holttum et al., 1959–1998; Van Steenis et al., 1948–2013), and the nomenclature of the species followed the Plant of the World databases (POWO, 2025).
In this study, wild plants are defined as species that market sellers report collecting from non-cultivated areas, such as forests, roadsides, near paddy fields, and abandoned lands. Although we acknowledge that some plants may originate in agricultural zones, our definition is limited to species that can establish and persist beyond managed cultivation. To validate this classification, we checked the species information against ethnobotanical literature and expert consultations.
. Data analysis
To assess whether the selected 10 markets sufficiently represented plant diversity in the JMA area, a species-area curve analysis was conducted. This analysis estimated species richness as a function of the number of surveyed markets, helping to determine whether additional markets would significantly increase the number of recorded species. The analysis was performed using binary (presence–absence) data for the plant species recorded in each market. The species accumulation curve was generated using the specaccum function of the Vegan package in R (Kindt, 2020) by applying a random permutation method to account for sampling variability.
Chord diagrams were created using the “circlize” tool (Gu et al., 2014) in R software (version 3.6.1; R Core Team, 2021) to show the contribution of various usages. The chord diagram enables us to study which plant parts are related to which use category, count the number of species in each use category, and determine which use group is more diversified, based on the thickness of each bar (Haq et al., 2022).
Data analysis was conducted descriptively regarding the use of wild plants in traditional markets in the Jakarta metropolitan area. The results of the survey were analyzed using Family Use Value (FUV), Use Value (UV), and Plant Part Value (PPV; Jadid et al., 2020). UV = ΣU/n, where UV = Use Value, ΣU = total use mentioned by informants per species, and n = total number of informants for a given species (Phillips & Gentry, 1993). FUV = ΣUV/n, where ΣUV is the total number of UVs of all species in one family, and n is the total number of species in one family (Phillips & Gentry, 1993). The plant part value (PPV) was calculated using the following formula: PPV (%) = RU plant part/RU, where RU plant part is the number of uses reported for all plant parts and RU is the sum of uses reported per part of the plant (Gomez-Beloz, 2002).
Cluster analysis of the markets studied was conducted using the Unweighted Pair Group Method with Arithmetic Mean (UPGMA), with the Jaccard Similarity Index. The analyses were performed in PAST 4.03 (Hammer-Muntz et al., 2001).
. Market inventory
The species accumulation curve (Figure 2) initially shows a rapid increase in species richness as markets are added, but this growth slows down after the eighth market, suggesting that most species have already been recorded (blue line). This implies that sampling beyond the eight markets is unlikely to reveal many additional species in the study area. The smoothed trend line (red line) continued to rise more gradually, levelling off at the 26th market, representing a broader prediction of species accumulation. While this red line provides a general trend, the observed data (blue line) indicate that the current sample of ten markets was sufficient to capture the market inventory.
Figure 2
Species accumulation curves for market plant diversity based on the number of species as a sampling effort.
A total of 115 wild plant species (Table 1) were recorded in 10 traditional markets of JMA. Following plant distribution data from Plants of the World (POWO, 2025), we analyzed the origin of the plants sold in the market and identified 55% as native to Indonesia and 45% as introduced. The plants belong to 56 families and 97 genera. The most common plant families are (Figure 3A): Zingiberaceae (11 species), Fabaceae (9 species), and Anacardiaceae (6 species), while the most common plant life forms were trees (44 species), followed by herbs (42 species) and shrubs (13 species) (Figure 3B). A variety of plants are traded on the market for different uses. Vegetables (36 species) had the highest number of species (Figure 3C), followed by spices (20 species) and medicine (20 species).
Figure 3
Share of families (A); their life forms (B); and category of utility (C) of wild plants sold in traditional markets of the JMA.
Table 1
Wild plants sold in traditional markets in The Jakarta Metropolitan Area.
[i] Unique species only found in the market: 1 = Pasar Grogol West Jakarta; 3 = Pasar Senen Central Jakarta; 5 = Pasar Rumput South Jakarta; 6 = Pasar Anyar Bogor; 7 = Pasar Kemiri Depok; 9 = Pasar Baru Bekasi; 10 = Pasar Pelita Sukabumi. Part Plants: R = Rhizome; Sh = Shoot; Ys = Young Shoot; St = Stem; B = Bark; L = Leaf; Pt = Petiole; LM = Leaf Midrib; Fl = Flower; Fr = Fruit; S = Seed.
. Plant Use
The plants in the market are mostly used as vegetables. There are many variations in dishes prepared from wild vegetable plants sold in the markets, one of which is gulai. This dish is in the form of soup with various spices, coconut milk, and vegetables as ingredients. The most common vegetables used for gulai were Manihot esculenta leaves, Musa acuminata flowers, and Colocasia esculenta stipules (Figure 4).
Figure 4
Selected edible plants sold in JMA markets. Vegetable: (A) Diplazium esculentum; (B) Alsophila spinulosa; (C) Angiopteris evecta; (D) Pleocnemia irregularis; (E) Pangium edule; (F) Limnocharis flava; (G) Colocasia esculenta; (H) Typhonium flagelliforme; (I) Nasturtium microphyllum; (J) Carica papaya; (K) Manihot carthagenensis; (L) Manihot esculenta; (M) Coleus amboinicus; (N) Artocarpus camansi; (O) Musa acuminata; (P) Dendrocalamus asper; (Q) Saccharum edule; Lalapan: (R) Staurogyne elongata; (S) Anacardium occidentale; (T) Centella asiatica; (U) Oenanthe javanica; (V) Polyscias fruticosa; (W) Planchonia valida; (X) Ficus virens; (Y) Pilea melastomoides.
City residents also eat fresh plants in a salad called lalapan, which is commonly served with chili sauce (sambal). Many parts of plant can be consumed as lalapan, but most are the leaf of plant such as Ocimum tenuiflorum, Pilea melastomoides, Anacardium occidentale, Staurogyne elongata, Centella asiatica, Polyscias fruticosa, Planchonia valida, and Ficus virens (Figure 4).
Several fruits are available for direct consumption, including Andoricum koetjape, Syzygium polycephalum, Baccaurea racemosa, and Artocarpus integer (Figure 5). Additionally, fruits are prepared as a snack called rujak, a fruit salad with sweet and spicy sauce. Rujak includes fruits from Spondias dulcis, Bouea macrophylla, Mangifera caesia, Antidesma bunius, and Mangifera foetida. Moreover, the seeds of Borassus flabellifer are also eaten as snacks and consumed with sweet syrup, whereas Artocarpus altilis fruits are processed into chips or a simple deep-fried snack.
Based on informant citations, the importance of the studied wild plant species was assessed using the Use Value (UV) and Family Use Value (FUV) calculation, with values ranging from 0.10 to 4.00 (Table 1). Musa acuminata (Musaceae) had the highest UV (4.00) and FUV (4.00). This was followed by Artocarpus heterophyllus, Pandanus amaryllifolius, and Piper betle, each with a UV of 3.00. In contrast, 26 species had the lowest UV (0.10), suggesting their limited cultural or economic importance.
Figure 5
Selected fruit sold in markets of the JMA: (A) Bouea macrophylla; (B) Mangifera caesia; (C) Mangifera foetida; (D) Mangifera odorata; (E) Spondias dulcis; (F) Borassus flabellifer; (G) Lansium domesticum; (H) Sandoricum koetjape; (I) Artocarpus altilis; (J) Artocarpus integer; (K) Syzygium malaccense; (L) Syzygium polycephalum; (M) Antidesma bunius; (N) Baccaurea racemosa; (O) Pometia pinnata.
Musa acuminata is a starchy banana, locally known as Pisang Kepok, which serves multiple purposes and is utilized in four distinct categories: vegetable, snack, fruit, and food packaging. Flowers are widely available in all markets and are sold as vegetables. The ripe fruits are consumed fresh as table fruit or prepared as a sweet dessert known as kolak, whereas unripe fruits are processed into banana chips. Leaves are highly valued for food packaging and are commonly used to wrap rice, snacks, and various other food items. Additionally, the dried stem was used as a wrapping material for the palm sugar. The versatility of this species makes it an important and widely traded commodity in the local markets.
Artocarpus heterophyllus, commonly known locally as jackfruit or nangka, is utilized in different ways depending on its ripeness. Unripe fruit is consumed as a vegetable, while ripe fruit is eaten fresh as a table fruit. Pandanus amaryllifolius, locally referred to as pandan wangi, is valued primarily for its fragrant leaves. These leaves are widely used as spices, for natural food coloring, and for spiritual purposes. Piper betle is well known for its medicinal properties, particularly its leaves, which are commonly used as traditional remedies. Additionally, the leaves are chewed fresh along with other spices as part of the betel-chewing tradition.
. Plants and community
Various plants are used as species in different cuisines (Figure 6). These spices have significant cultural value, with specific ethnic groups incorporating them into traditional dishes. For instance, the Minangnese use the leaves of Curcuma longa in rendang traditional dishes, while Bataknese use the fruit of Zanthoxylum acanthopodium and the stem of Etlingera elatior for seasoning. Additionally, the Javanese used the rhizome of Boesenbergia rotunda in their culinary practices. Wild plants are also used by people as medicinal remedies. Piper betle, Biancaea sappan, Curcuma zanthorrhiza, Kaempferia rotunda, Tinospora cordifolia, Senna alexandrina, and Orthosiphon aristatus are among the most frequently traded species used for medicinal purposes.
Figure 6
Selected plant for spices sold in markets of the JMA: (A) Pangium edule; (B) Garcinia atroviridis; (C) Garcinia xanthochymus; (D) Tamarindus indica; (E) Myristica fragrans; (F) Averrhoa bilimbi; (G) Bergera koenigii; (H) Zanthoxylum acanthopodium; (I) Alpinia galanga; (J) Boesenbergia rotunda; (K) Curcuma longa; (L) Etlingera elatior (1 = stem, 2 = flower, 3 = fruit); (M) Kaempferia galanga.
In addition to consumption, some plants are used for spiritual purposes in religious and cultural activities. For example, the flower petals of Mussaenda frondosa, Jasminum sambac, Magnolia champaca, Impatiens balsamina, Tabernaemontana divaricata, and Cananga odorata, along with thin slices of Pandanus amaryllifolius leaves, are sold as mixed flowers for graves because of their bright color and fragrant aroma. These flowers are also used in sesajen and spiritual offerings for supernatural powers.
Some plants are used for packaging food. For example, the stems of Schizostachyum brachycladum are used to cook rice or sticky rice, called lemang, by placing the grain inside and roasting it. In addition to stems, leaves are used to wrap a variety of dishes and pastries. The leaves of Phrynium pubinerve are used to wrap rice cakes called lontong. Various tools and utensils are also derived from the stems and leaves of wild plants. For instance, the leaf midribs of Arenga pinnata are used for woven plates, stems of Tamarindus indica for cutting boards, stems of Calamus spp. for a traditional chicken basket, and stems of Dendrocalamus asper for woven trays and skewer sticks.
Fourteen plant parts were available in the market. The most popular trade object was fruits (40 species; Figure 7A); however, the most commonly used plant parts were leaves (28.75% of PPV; Figure 7B). Notably, the Chord diagram (Figure 7C) reveals that leaves have a diverse range of usage, primarily for vegetables, lalapan, medicinal purposes, and spices, with a strong connection to the vegetable category. The second most popular fruits are table fruits, vegetables, snacks, spices, medicines, and lalapan. The food category (vegetable, table fruit, and lalapan) dominates, with a significant proportion of connections flowing from various plant parts. This suggests that plant-based food sources were particularly prevalent in the surveyed markets.
. Analysis of species composition
The highest diversity of wild plant species available for sale was observed in Pasar Anyar Bogor (77 species), whereas the lowest was recorded in Pasar Rumput (51 species). UPGMA clustering based on Jaccard similarity (Figure 8) grouped the surveyed markets according to their geographic locations. Markets within Jakarta city, including Pasar Rumput, Anyar Tangerang, Teluk Gong, Kemiri Depok, Kramat Jati, Baru Bekasi, and Grogol, exhibited similar species compositions, likely due to shared supply chains, centralized distribution networks, and common consumer preferences. The markets located farther from Jakarta – Pasar Anyar Bogor and Pelita Sukabumi – demonstrated a higher number of species, as well as a higher number of unique plants. Pasar Anyar Bogor contained eight unique species, whereas Pasar Pelita Sukabumi contained six species.
Figure 8
UPGMA dendrogram of ten traditional markets in the JMA. Numbers in square brackets indicate the number of species available in each market (including the number of unique species).
Pasar Senen, despite being located within Jakarta, stands apart as a group. This may be because of their unique characteristics as one of the cities’ oldest markets. This historical significance may have contributed to its unique species composition, as established trade networks and long-standing consumer demand for specific plant species distinguish it from other markets in the city.
These findings suggest that geographic distance to supply areas, along with market history connected to community preferences, play key roles in shaping species composition in markets. The unique species composition in markets located far from Jakarta is likely due to stronger connections with local ecosystems and regional harvesting practices, where sellers source plants directly from nearby forests, home gardens, or small-scale farms instead of large urban suppliers.
. Discussion
The high diversity of wild plants documented in this study highlights the continued importance of wild plant use even in densely populated urban areas. We recorded 115 wild plant species, which is a relatively high number compared to similar studies in other regions. For instance, Łuczaj et al. (2021) reported 110 edible wild plant species in Laos, Kang et al. (2014) identified 81 species in Gansu, China, Shirai & Rambo (2014) recorded 54 species in Thailand, and Kar & Borthakur (2007) documented 29 species in Assam, India.
In Indonesia, research on traditional markets has largely focused on both cultivated and wild edible and medicinal plants. Silalahi et al. (2015) identified 257 wild and 87 cultivated medicinal species in North Sumatra, whereas Sujarwo et al. (2018) recorded 30 wild and 20 cultivated species in three markets in Tabanan, Bali. The relatively high number of wild plants in our study suggests that urban markets continue to serve as important hubs for the trade of wild plant resources, reflecting both cultural and urban demands.
. Ethnic and cultural factors influencing wild plant use
The presence of diverse ethnic groups in the JMA influences the diversity of the wild plants sold in the market. Although the JMA has historically been dominated by Betawinese and Sundanese ethnic groups (Melalatoa, 1995), rapid population growth has resulted in other ethnic groups moving across Indonesia. Notably, Jakarta itself is currently home to 3.4 million Javanese, 2.7 million Betawinese, 1.3 million Sundanese, 600 thousand Chinese, 300 thousand Bataknese, 200 thousand Minangnese, and other ethnic groups (BPS, 2010). These ethnic groups have preserved their cultural and traditional practices. Even after relocating far from their homeland, they continued to uphold these traditions.
Knowledge of useful wild plants, including the methods, purposes, and parts of plants used by Indonesian communities, is unique to each group. A single plant species can be used by one or more ethnic groups for the same or different purposes, with the same or different plant parts, and using similar or different processing methods. With so many different ethnic groups currently inhabiting the JMA area, it is not surprising that a wide variety of wild plants can also be found in marketplaces.
. Sources and distribution of wild plants
A market analysis within the JMA revealed variations in the availability of wild plants, largely influenced by the different ethnic communities and the distance to the supply area. A key question is how traditional markets in densely populated urban regions such as the JMA manage to source a wide variety of wild plants to meet the needs of different ethnic groups. Notably, Jakarta itself has almost no agroforestry activities and lacks natural forests (BPS, 2023). Therefore, most wild plants sold in JMA markets originate from neighboring regions, including West Java (Bogor, Bandung, Sukabumi) and Banten (Rangkasbitung). Interviews with traders also confirmed that most of the wild plants available in JMA markets come from outside the area, with some even being imported from other islands such as Sumatra. Specific wild plants, such as Saccharum edule, are transported directly from Bogor, whereas others, such as Baccaurea racemosa, are imported by traders from Rangkasbitung. This targeted sourcing strategy reflects a highly specialized supply chain, ensuring that consumer demand for traditional plant resources is met despite the absence of local agroforestry or natural forest resources.
. Wild plant’s role
Most wild plants sold on the market are primarily used for consumption. This highlights the critical role that wild plants play in ensuring food security in the region. According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), food security is defined as a situation where all people, at all times, have physical, social, and economic access to sufficient, safe, and nutritious food that meets their dietary needs and preferences for an active and healthy life (FAO, 2002). The consumption of wild plants in local diets emphasizes their importance in supporting food availability and local economies (FAO & WHO, 2022; McClafferty & DeWaal, 2021).
In addition to their culinary uses, wild plants have significant medicinal value. For thousands of years, plants have been used in traditional medicine across different cultures (IARC, 2002), and Indonesia is no exception. More than 13,000 plant species are used for medicinal purposes in the country (BPPKRI, 2012). Piper betle, Curcuma longa, and Zingiber officinale are commonly used for medicinal purposes in Indonesia. These plants are known to treat various ailments, including cough, fever, and digestive disorders, and possess antibacterial and antifungal properties (Silalahi et al., 2015).
. Sustainability and environmental considerations
The considerable number of wild plants sold in the traditional JMA market proves that people living in cities, despite leading a modern lifestyle, still use wild plants in everyday life. Although no protected species were found in our study, the constant demand for wild plants could eventually lead to biodiversity loss in the regions supplying JMA markets. Future research is needed to address the importance of sustainable sourcing practices and conservation efforts to maintain the diversity of wild plants.
. Conclusions
This market survey provided information on the use of wild plants, which are closely linked to cultural, medicinal, and culinary traditions. A total of 115 wild plant species belonging to 56 families were documented in the traditional markets of the JMA, demonstrating the significant role of wild plants in fulfilling various needs of the population. We documented the various uses of wild plants, ranging from culinary purposes, such as vegetables, which are the most utilized plants, spices, and fruits, to medicinal, spiritual, and cultural applications. Wild plants sold in markets are not only consumed directly but are also used for food packaging, tools, and traditional practices such as customs and rituals. Notably, the diversity of wild plants found in the markets reflects the rich cultural heritage and traditions of the diverse ethnic groups living in the JMA. Our study shows a strong connection between people and wild plants. Owing to the increasing urbanization of the JMA, the forest areas of Java are inevitably decreasing. This necessitates the protection of natural areas rich in species and the promotion of environmentally friendly practices in recognition of the indisputable role of traditional markets in the protection of cultural heritage and maintaining food security in the JMA.
Acknowledgments
The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support provided by the Research Support Module ID.UJ for Doctoral Students at the Faculty of Biology, Jagiellonian University in Kraków (grant no. U1U/W18/NO/28.65), and the Institute of Botany, Jagiellonian University (grant no. N18/DBS/000002), which made this study possible. The authors also extend their sincere thanks to all respondents who participated in this research and generously shared their valuable knowledge. Special appreciation goes to the local contacts for their assistance during the survey. Finally, the authors thank the anonymous reviewers for their constructive and thoughtful feedback, which greatly contributed to improving the final version of this manuscript.
